Sheep Shape Summits

a sustainable future for appalachian balds

By Gabrielle Moore

The grassy balds are nestled among the vast slopes of coniferous forests in the Appalachians, one of the most biologically diverse regions in North America. The balds of western North Carolina, such as Gregory Bald, Andrews’ Bald, and Hooper Bald, are void of trees, offering panoramic views many travel to see. However, there’s much more to this natural wonder than meets the eye. These ecosystems are evidence of the complex interplay between ecological change and anthropogenic alteration. Although grassy balds have been influenced by natural and unnatural forces for many centuries, their current state is indisputably shaped by the selective sheep grazing practices associated with the Appalachian wool industry. Sheep grazing has deeply influenced not only human life in Appalachia but also that of the grassy bald ecosystems. By acknowledging the decline of traditional sheep grazing and its effect on bald maintenance, we can establish innovative conservation strategies that consider both ecological and socio-economic factors.

Grassy balds are subalpine ecosystems defined by treeless, grassy meadows that occur below timberline and mostly on ridgetops in the Appalachian Mountains. These ecosystems have long played a role in shaping the ecological, cultural, and historical landscape of Appalachia. The origin and history of grassy balds have been broadly debated and extend beyond European settlement. European post-settlement grazing practices can be directly interlinked with modern Appalachian grazing practices but often overlook grazing pressure in the most distant past. Predating native bison and elk, during the late Pleistocene, megaherbivores such as mammoths, ground sloths, and mastodons grazed upon these high elevation habitats, radically modifying the grassy balds. Before 1800, Cherokee legends told stories of treeless high mountain areas, which suggest that they viewed the balds as natural landscape features.[i] This marked the lasting impact that these megaherbivore grazing practices had on the bald ecosystems. Similarly, in a 1975 interview, Carlos Campbell, a pre-park hiker and secretary of the Great Smoky Mountains Conservation Association, provided his insight on sheep grazing practices. When asked about sapling regeneration and grazing within the region, he responded, “I suspect and firmly believe that if grazing had been continued maybe for a hundred or two hundred years, the whole ten miles between Gregory Bald and Thunderhead would have been one continuous grassy meadow.”[ii] The correlation between the two points is no coincidence in how intensive grazing practices not only shape but permanently alter grassy bald ecosystems. However, the arrival of European settlers in the 18th century also marked a significant shift within ecosystems. As native elk and bison populations began to diminish, settlers began to bring their livestock (sheep, cattle, and horses) up to the balds to graze.[iii] Early European settlers began to adopt traditional grazing practices to maintain open areas and seasonal grazing practices to prevent overgrazing. These long-term evolutionary interactions between bald and mammal ecology can provide insight on not only modern sheep grazing practices but also their impact on grassy balds.

Sheep, like most cattle, are selective grazers, implying they don't consume at random. They display preferences for specific plant species, parts of plants, and even grazing areas based on quality, taste, and accessibility. Sheep favor herbaceous plants and shrubs over woody species, which has played a crucial role in shaping the grassy bald ecosystem and fostering local biodiversity in Appalachia. A professor of botany at Maryville College, Randolph Shields, furthers this idea through the examination of livestock during the pre-park days, specifically sheep. Unlike other livestock, such as cows, who tended to wander, sheep remained on the crest of grassy balds, hence the intensive grazing on top of the balds. Shields and many locals of the region attest that the grass on these balds was always kept short by the sheep. Low-matty, higher-altitude plants such as silverweeds and sorrels were prominent.[iv] Although the crest of grassy balds was home to few plant species, it was common to find mosaic of plant species at the base. Littered along the bottom of the balds were low brush, flowering azaleas, blueberry and serviceberry bushes, and tree stumps of oak and chestnut. The diversity at the base of the bald not only provided for human gathering and productivity but also local species such as deer that grazed on lower slopes. Resident and pre-park hiker Paul Adams recalls this scenery at Gregory’s Bald, noting the relatively clear grassy bald landscape amongst the surrounding ungrazed areas.[v]

Although sheep grazing has been a positive factor in promoting bald biodiversity, it is important to note that the impact of grazing is not without repercussions. Highly concentrated and extensive sheep-raising practices can lead to overgrazing and even the depletion of grassy-bald ecology. On the local level, news articles from Hickory Daily described the events where unregulated and unrestricted livestock grazing resulted in “large areas almost denuded of native grass.”[vi] Sheep grazing behavior and practices have undoubtedly shaped the grassy balds of western North Carolina. Moving forward, studying the impact of different grazing techniques can provide insight on how sheep can continue to shape the balds throughout the Appalachian wool industry.

Due to economic factors and the high value of wool as a commodity, the wool industry grew rapidly in Western North Carolina. This resulted in extensive sheep grazing practices that significantly influenced the Appalachian landscape, including the creation and maintenance of grassy balds. Sheep farming provided a vital source of income for Appalachian families. The locals attested to this as “sheep were an asset to the community, adding to its wealth and thus increasing its volume of trade.”[vii] The Appalachian region contained sparse populations and low-priced lands, making them the most suitable for sheep raising. Local farmers embraced this opportunity, raising large flocks of sheep on the vast mountain pastures. Sheep that were raised on the hillsides afforded wool, which was carded, dyed, spun, and woven into cloth or knit into stockings or carpets for the floor.[viii] The sale of wool brought needed income and created a sense of self-sufficiency for the Appalachian region. The raising of sheep allowed Appalachian families to enter into two markets: wool and mutton. Wool and mutton not only provided an area of trade within the industry but small-scale subsistence as well. However, this economic boom came at an environmental cost. Grazing pressures brought resource depletion and demand for new grazing lands.  Timber companies and other landowners placed advertisements in local newspapers auctioning acres of land that were cut-over and suitable for sheep grazing and farming. In 1919, local journals would state, “Much of this land is now used in a limited way for livestock pastures, while other areas are wholly idle. They could be made to furnish grazing for sheep.”[ix] As the demand for wool grew, so did the number of sheep grazing on the balds. Increased grazing pressure, combined with potential overgrazing practices, impacted the balance of the bald ecosystems, leaving many balds unable to recuperate.

The decline of the 20th-century wool industry had a profound impact on the maintenance of grassy balds, shifting these Appalachian landscapes. The decline of the global wool market and “man-made fibers such as nylon, polyester, and acrylic revolutionized fiber production, and with the invention and acceptance of these fibers, the use of wool decreased.”[x] This caused a significant decrease in sheep farming, a traditional land management practice for the grassy balds, although it would take time for the number of sheep within the region to gradually decline as sheep remained economically important in other parts of the region. However, with the reduced grazing pressure from local sheep herds, the natural process of woody plant encroachment accelerated upon the open balds. Woody plants such as spruce trees, blueberry bushes, and azaleas began to ascend the crest of the balds. Meadows were transformed into deciduous woodlands by these woody, shade-tolerant plant species, which were primarily found at the base of grassy balds. Local areas such as Roan Mountain were affected by the decline of grazing practices. Shields notes that it didn’t take long for the fenced and abandoned bald ecosystem to be covered in woody plants.[xi] The grassy balds that had not been maintained by practices such as grazing, cutting, or mowing were reduced by forest succession—this was unfortunately a common theme among the Appalachian balds. The loss of habitat for the grassy balds not only threatened bald biodiversity but severed the cultural and historical connection for Appalachian communities that relied on sheep farming for generations. Residents of Appalachia struggled to adjust to this new environment, much like the local flora and fauna communities. The decline of the wool industry is a clear indication of how conservation efforts are essential in shaping the future of grassy balds. Analyzing the historical context of reduced sheep grazing practices and their consequences is key to safeguarding conservation strategies to preserve and ensure the existence of grassy balds in Appalachia.

The grassy balds of Western North Carolina face a looming threat: the encroachment of woody plants. With the decline of traditional sheep grazing practices relevant to the wool industry, these vast meadows are slowly transforming into woodlands, jeopardizing the unique plant and animal communities that have adapted to these ecosystem’s habitats. The encroachment of woody species onto the balds isn’t just an ecological concern; it also causes an aesthetic loss as the growth of tall plant species restricts the views from the balds. This underscores how conservation efforts are crucial to maintaining the future of grassy balds in Appalachia. The USDA Forest Service is managing several grassy balds, heath balds, and other open grassy areas in the Southern Appalachians with the goal of reestablishing and maintaining the integrity of these balds. The main objectives of this management program are to preserve scenic, ecological, and wild-life values.[xii] The tests of possible methods of bald management include fire, mechanical mowing, hand cutting, clearing, and grazing. The use of fire or prescribed burns is one of the more frequently used techniques, mimicking the historical role of lightning strikes on the balds. Areas being managed by fire can vary in size, from small patches to several hundred acres. Prescribed burns can be highly effective in promoting healthy bald ecology and preventing woody plant establishment, as grasses responded well to the burns, becoming thick and lush. However, the flora and fauna species present on the different grassy balds respond differently to burning practices. Bald locations dominated by dense high-brush species will require at least a decade to recover from a complete top-kill burn, whereas “less severe prescribed burns will have to be repeated more frequently, perhaps every five years, to retard regrowth of the woody plant community.”[xiii] This study conducted in Shenandoah National Park concluded that fire is indeed effective in delaying the invasion of woody plants but cannot cause areas with pre-developed shrub growth to revert to grass. Physical methods to remove woody plants include mechanical mowing and hand cutting. Mechanical mowing is primarily used in “scenic” areas. Although these areas are high in elevation, they are relatively level, making large machine mowing efficient. However, balds with steep, rocky, and inaccessible features such as Andrews and Gregory Bald are incompatible with this form of maintenance. Hand cutting has also been found effective in removing small encroaching tree species, but only in small quantities. Additionally, hand cutting is not only extremely labor-intensive, but it also requires frequent upkeep, disposal of slashed vegetation, and high labor costs. Perhaps the most invasive of the methods, clear-cutting, removes trees that are too large to burn and too many to hand-cut. While effective in the short term by establishing the natural appearance of grassy balds, the clear-cutting process causes noticeable damage to native bald species. Herbs were flattened, crushed, and uprooted, and amongst the litter caused by the dragging of brush, the likelihood of erosion increased.[xiv]

No single method is perfect when it comes to the maintenance of grassy balds, however, the most sustainable solution lies in the reintroduction of sheep grazing. Modern, sustainable strategies like controlled grazing, where sheep are strategically moved between pastures throughout the season, can effectively suppress woody plant growth without overgrazing the herbaceous vegetation. The grazing model conducted in Jefferson National Forest examined different livestock, such as cattle, ponies, and sheep, fenced in woody landscapes. When examined in these fenced, grazed, and ungrazed areas, the model states that “the differences in the abundance of blackberries and blueberries are apparent, so it seems that grazing will prevent the establishment of shrubs.”[xv] Reintroducing livestock grazing practices presents a more sustainable approach, but it requires careful management to prevent overgrazing and erosion, ensuring the overall health of the bald ecosystem. The sustainability of the grassy balds depends on a commitment to ongoing observation and adaptive management. Evaluating the effectiveness of each control method in different contexts is crucial for developing a comprehensive conservation plan. By combining various approaches and tailoring them to the specific needs of each bald, we can ensure the sustained presence of these unique ecosystems for generations to come.

Sustainability in such sheep grazing practices is central to the long-term health of the grassy balds. Unsustainable sheep grazing practices can lead to overgrazing, soil erosion, and a decline in plant diversity—the very characteristics they are intended to protect. Therefore, a holistic approach is crucial. Sustainable grazing models offer a promising path forward in the maintenance of grassy balds. One approach is rotational grazing, where sheep graze on specific sections of the bald in a planned sequence, allowing grazed areas time to recover before being revisited, promoting healthy plant communities. The Scots-Irish sheep-raising practices in Ulster and Scotland operate as a  prototype for Appalachian grazing practices. Sheep were the only livestock that could stand in relative mountainous areas and utilize the grass on high elevation mountain pastures.[xvi] The rotational grazing model additionally suggests incorporating a variety of livestock beyond sheep, such as goats, cows, hogs, and horses, which can offer complementary grazing benefits. A grazing model conducted in 1976 atop Gregory Bald further analyzes this idea, comparing different types of livestock and the effectiveness of grazers as a method of sprout control. Animals used for the study included heifers, lambs, goats, ewes, and donkeys, loosely varying in size, age, and breed. All the animals were released on various bald pastures, which contained an assortment of plant species. In correspondence, after each species duration within these pastures, they were measured for girth, height, and length, providing insight on extensive grazing in fluctuating flora and fauna. The study concluded the following keystone dietary preferences: The cattle ate almost nothing but grass and oaks, not partaking in hawthorn or blueberry species until the grass was very short. The goats mainly ate oaks, hawthorns, and blueberries and only grazed the grass lightly. The donkeys ate the grass extremely close to the ground; however, they would occasionally browse oak and hawthorn, never touching the blueberries. The sheep showed equal preference for blueberry sprouts, hawthorns, and oak, and when confined for too long, they bared the ground where the grass grew.[xvii] Examining the selective grazing behaviors of these livestock plays a crucial role in shaping sustainable grazing models. Placing livestock herds within their dietary preferences on grassy balds provides the most efficient conservation model by not only catering to local wildlife but also restoring bald ecosystems in Appalachia.

Regional involvement also plays a vital role in the future of the grassy balds. Local Appalachian communities possess invaluable traditional ecological knowledge about these ecosystems and land management practices. Collaborative efforts between conservation groups and local residents can foster a sense of ownership and encourage responsible stewardship. Educational programs can not only raise awareness about the importance of the balds but also encourage responsible recreation practices and engagement in local industries. Partnerships with local farmers can create innovative grazing models that provide economic benefits to the community while fostering the ecological restoration of grassy balds. Incentivizing sustainable grazing practices can create a situation suited for both the ecological and socio-economic livelihoods in Appalachia. Looking ahead, the future of the grassy balds lies in embracing sustainable grazing practices alongside regional involvement. By working together, we can ensure these irreplaceable landscapes remain for generations to come. This collaborative approach offers a promising path towards a greener, more sustainable future for the western North Carolina grassy balds.

The grassy balds of western North Carolina stand as monuments to the intricate relationship between anthropogenic alteration and ecological change. While the selective grazing practices associated with the historical Appalachian wool industry have undoubtedly shaped these ecosystems, the decline of sheep farming has presented new challenges. By acknowledging the past, embracing innovative conservation strategies, and fostering collaboration, we can ensure the future of these unique landscapes.

The future exploration of this field holds many new questions waiting to be answered. While sheep grazing has been historically significant, could other grazing animals, like deer and elk, offer complementary benefits in sustainable grazing models for the balds? How might climate change impact the future management needs of grassy balds? What adjustments might be necessary in grazing models and other conservation strategies to ensure their continued effectiveness? Can ecological techniques such as pollen analysis be used to reconstruct past vegetation patterns on the grassy balds? By examining these questions, we can weave together a deeper understanding of innovative conservation strategies for grassy balds. The conservation of grassy balds is not just about preserving breathtaking landscapes, but also about protecting a vital part of Appalachian history and culture. By bringing power back to local communities, sheep production can once again become a part of the high country.[xviii] The future of these balds holds the promise of a tapestry woven not just by sheep and men but by a collective effort towards sustainable and responsible ecological stewardship, ensuring these remarkable summits remain in Appalachia.

[i] Weigl and Knowles, "Megaherbivores and Southern Appalachian Grass Balds," 366.

[ii] Campbell, “Great Smoky Mountains:History of the Grassy Balds in Great Smoky Mountains National Park.”

[iii] Duernberger, “Exploring the Southern Appalachian Grassy Balds: A Hiking Guide,” 11.

[iv] Shields, “Great Smoky Mountains:History of the Grassy Balds in Great Smoky Mountains National Park.”

[v] Adams, “Great Smoky Mountains:History of the Grassy Balds in Great Smoky Mountains National Park.”

[vi] Hickory, “Hickory Daily Record.”

[vii] Carolina Mountaineer, “The Carolina Mountaineer and Waynesville Courier.”

[viii] Eller, “Land and Family: An Historical View of Preindustrial Appalachia,” 94.

[ix] Jackson County, “North Carolina Collection, Jackson County Journal.”

[x] Jarrell, “‘Sheep!’ Sheep Production in Watauga and Ashe Counties in North Carolina from the 1930s to Now,” 379.

[xi] Shields, “Great Smoky Mountains:History of the Grassy Balds in Great Smoky Mountains National Park.”

[xii] Lindsay, “Management of Grassy Balds in Great Smoky Mountains National Park,” 6.

[xiii] Barden, “Regrowth of Shrubs in Grassy Balds of the Southern Appalachians after Prescribed Burning,” 244.

[xiv] Lindsay, “Management of Grassy Balds in Great Smoky Mountains National Park,” 24.

[xv] Lindsay, “Management of Grassy Balds in Great Smoky Mountains National Park,” 15.

[xvi] Jarrell, “‘Sheep!’ Sheep Production in Watauga and Ashe Counties in North Carolina from the 1930s to Now,” 367.

[xvii] Lindsay, “Management of Grassy Balds in Great Smoky Mountains National Park,” 35.

[xviii] Jarrell, “‘Sheep!’ Sheep Production in Watauga and Ashe Counties in North Carolina from the 1930s to Now,” 365.