Trouble in the Water

How PFAs are contaminating the conasauga River

By Rachael Lowery

Pollution in the Conasauga River has been a problem for many years, but for most, the idea of water pollution sparks an image of trash floating in waterways. Many do not think of the unseen pollution that can be causing harm to not only its immediate surroundings but people and ecosystems many miles away. The Conasauga River is located in North-West Georgia and feeds into many other rivers and streams that lead into Alabama and other South Georgian counties. Since the early 1900s, carpet production has been an important industry in Dalton, Georgia, giving rise to many companies and jobs. Though these companies contribute to the economy of the area, they also add a lot to the pollution of the city. Because of its location in Dalton, also known as the carpet capital of the world, the Conasauga River has been exposed to the many chemicals that go into the production of carpets. These chemicals include Polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and Polyflourocarbons (PFCs), which have subgroups such as Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOAs) and Perfluorooctane Sulfonate (PFOS)[1]. Such chemicals are introduced into Dalton’s waterways daily and are known to have adverse health effects for both humans and animals and are very persistent in the environment. Although the carpet industry has added history, and infrastructure to Dalton, it has also played a large role in affecting the ecosystems of the Conasauga River Valley. Through the years, there has been an assortment of denial, secrecy, and concealed information about how these chemicals have been treated and contained in the Dalton area and how they have caused problems for multiple cities downstream. The conflicts and controversies show how the addition of capitalism to the Dalton area has had an effect on the ecosystems of our waterways.

Background Information about PFAS:

PFAs are contaminants that are very common in the Dalton area. Because of the large quantity of carpet companies located in Dalton, the surrounding Conasauga River is the main receiver of these pollutants. Polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) can be broken down into two different subgroups known as Perfluorooctane Sulfonate (PFOS) and Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOAs) those of which are the two most highly produced subgroups of PFAS in the United States. Although these are the two main forms of the chemical that are produced, they are sometimes formed when they are metabolized by an organism that has been exposed in its ecosystem[2]. PFAS are manmade chemicals that are not naturally found in the environment and are used in the production of carpets and textiles. With a half-life set to greater than three to seven years[3], they are known to be very persistent in the environment because of an extremely strong chemical bond between fluorine and carbon[4]. The bond between fluorine and carbon allows the molecule to be stable and long lasting due to its hydrophobic characteristics. It should be noted that these characteristics also allow for the chemicals to be sent through wastewater treatment plants without being removed. Specific filters are necessary for the removal, which most counties do not have. This persistence allows them to bioaccumulate, and can possibly lead to bioconcentration, in humans and surrounding wildlife[5].

When a toxin bioaccumulates, it means that chemical is adsorbed to a specific part of the body, usually fats, which can then be passed up the food chain. Because PFAS are hydrophobic, they tend to adhere to molecules in the bloodstream and other non-fatty organs such as the liver and kidneys[6]. When these chemicals bioaccumulate, the process can lead to bioconcentration, when the chemical is moved up the tertiary levels through consumption of contaminated food. It has been stated that PFOS are known to accumulate at concerning levels in fish[7]. Since humans and animals both are exposed to these chemicals through oral consumption of contaminated food and water, these contaminated fish could possibly pose a threat to humans along with other predators in the ecosystem. These chemicals have been produced and used in the United States since the 1940s, and their use is continued today with the addition of some regulations and some slight changes to the molecular structure[8]. Because PFAS have been used in the production of carpet for so long, they are in abundance in the Conasauga River in Dalton, Georgia.

History of Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in the Conasauga River:

            Dalton, Georgia has a long history of carpet production. Starting in the early 20th century, a woman by the name of Catherine Evans Whitener began making bedspreads and started the carpet revolution in Dalton. In 1917 she and her family opened Evans Manufacturing Company, which was the beginning of the establishment of manufacturing companies in Dalton. In the 1930s, these manufacturing companies began making rugs along with their bedspreads. By the 1950s, there were major advances in mechanics and technology that allowed for a more modern production and dyeing of carpet to be introduced to the industry[9]. Dalton is considered the “carpet capital of the world” because approximately 90% of the world’s carpet is manufactured here[10]. Of course, these companies produce wastewater that must be treated. Loopers Bends is a wastewater treatment plant in Dalton, where a majority of the water treated is coming from industrial sources such as the carpet factories. After the water is treated, it is sprayed onto land owned by Dalton Utilities to be reintroduced into the ecosystem without overwhelming or flooding local rivers[11]. The water that is sprayed on these fields will be slowly reintroduced into the waterways by runoff. The field area at Loopers Bend is almost completely surrounded by the Conasauga River. A study was done by UGA in 2006 to test for PFCs in the Conasauga River both upstream and downstream of Dalton Utilities, in which they found concentrations of PFOS and PFOA downstream of the plant[12]. 

In 2009 and 2010, there were many tests done in and around Dalton Utilities concerning the contamination of PFCs in the soil and water. Dalton Utilities had been distributing a compost version of biosolids from the Loopers Bend Wastewater Treatment Plant since 2003. PFCs were detected in this compost in 2009, and distribution was temporarily suspended until May of 2010. The EPA was aware that Dalton Utilities was distributing and selling the compost, but at the time, PFCs were not regulated under the “EPA’s biosolids program,” and the distribution of these composts was legal[13]. Dalton Utilities also confirmed that they would regularly sample the compost and would only distribute compost that was ten times under the EPA’s soil guidance values. They also made recipients sign an agreement to only use the product for landscaping and not home gardens. From this information it can be concluded that Dalton Utilities was aware that there were some levels of PFCs in soil and water, and that products with the contaminant should not be used in any production of food. Many more sampling tests were done throughout 2009, and many showed that although there were levels of PFOA and PFAS in the water and soil that was tests, the numbers were under the limits established by the EPA. There was only one case that showed levels higher than EPA’s established regulation in a private home well. However, there were studies done that showed PFOS in the serum, liver, and kidneys of both male and female deer living in the area surrounding loopers bend. It is clear that Dalton has had a long and continuous relationship with both the carpet companies and PFAS contaminating soil and waterways in the surrounding area.

Conflicts Involving Polyfluoroalkyl Substances:

            Unsurprisingly, the release of Polyfluoroalkyl substances into waterways has caused some controversy with surrounding cities. There have been a handful of lawsuits against the many carpet companies of Dalton because of their release of PFAS into the Conasauga River, which allowed for the contaminated water to infiltrate drinking water of surrounding areas. In one main case, PFAS from the Conasauga River made their way all the way into Etowah County, Alabama, where they contaminated drinking water. The City of Gadsden supplies their drinking water from Lake Neely Henry in the Coosa River basin, which has the Conasauga River as one of its five main tributaries.  In a 2016 civil action, Water Works and Sewer Board of the City of Gadsden (Gadsden Water) stated that their water source "has and continues to be damaged" by more than 30 carpet companies in Dalton because of the “past and present release” of PFCs, PFOAs, and PFOSs. This complaint also contained the county's "relief demanded," which consisted of having the chemicals removed from the water supply, pay for damages caused by the chemicals, attorney fees, and any other relief the court deemed just. They stated that industrial waste from these companies contains high levels of PFOAS and PFOS that “resist degradation during processing at Dalton Utilities and contaminate the Conasauga River.”[14] The Health Department of Gadsden responded by saying that the water had been tested and showed levels of 84 and 82 parts per trillion which is over the highest maximum level established by the EPA, which is 70 parts per trillion. They stated that although “over the last 18 weeks… the average of the Gadsden water samples for the levels of PFOA and PFOS is 70 parts per trillion” they would have to continue to monitor the water[15]. A statement from Dalton Utilities said they are “aware that various concerns are being discussed in the media” and that they had “taken no action regarding PFOA of PFOS and will take no action” until their regulatory agencies provide them with guidance. They also state that “in [their] research of the issue,” they have found no "studies or evidence which links PFOA and PFOS to any impact on human health”[16].

            In addition to Gadsden Alabama’s lawsuit, another civil lawsuit was filed by the city of Rome in 2019. It also included more than 30 carpet companies from Dalton, Georgia who have been releasing PFAS, which were known to be toxic, into the Conasauga River. These chemicals made their way from the Conasauga River into the Oostanaula River which is Floyd counties main source of water. They stated that PFC levels had “consistently met or exceeded the legal limit” that was set by the EPA in May of 2016. Because Rome does not have the technology to remove PFCs from their water, it has cost them “tens of millions of dollars” because they are in need of an entirely new filtration system[17].

Not only were Gadsden Alabama and Rome Georgia affected by these chemicals, but other cities in Georgia have also experienced problems concerning PFAS and the entrance of such chemicals into the drinking water. Summerville has had almost 1.2 million dollars’ worth of problems because of PFOS contamination. These problems just recently occurred in 2019 when the City Manager got a call from the EPA “concerning water quality tests” from Raccoon Creek treatment plant that supplies the city’s water. The tests showed high levels of PFOS and PFOAs. These concerns became apparent when, in 2016, the EPA lowered the acceptable maximum amount of contaminant in the water from 600 parts per trillion to 70. Summerville’s water tests showed the levels coming in 98 parts per trillion. In Summerville, the water advisory was only for select people, including “the elderly, pregnant, infants, children, and people with compromised immune systems,” but many others wanted to take precautions to avoid the chemicals[18].  There was even a notice put out that animals shouldn’t be drinking the water. Because of these concerns, the only establishment that could supply clean drinking water was the McDonalds in town.

Studies of the Effects of Polyfluoroalkyl Substances on Humans and Animals:

            There have been many studies done in the past that link Polyfluoroalkyl substances to adverse health effects in both humans and animals. For many years, large companies have had information about PFCs that was never released to the public, or federal or state regulators. Starting as far back as the 1950s, companies like 3M had been finding that PFAS builds up in the blood of mice and humans. In 1956, Stanford University found that PFAS bind to proteins in human blood. After one 3M study was done in 1978, the company declared that PFOA, PFAS and PFOS “should be regarded as toxic” even though “the degree of toxicity was left undefined.” From the years 1950 to 2003, these large companies had been doing these studies and finding information about different changes to liver and blood, problems with the chemicals moving through the food chain and how they endanger humans and animals. There were papers that stated how there were heightened cancer rates at certain plants that used PFAS in the production of their products. One study by 3M even discovered that when animals were exposed to PFOAs, they grew tumors and that the findings “are not within normal biological variation”[19]. All of these documents were unreleased until recently. Although these companies have been conducting studies as far back as the 1950s when PFAS first became popular, they did not alert “federal or state regulators until 1998” because legally they did not have to. There are still no legal limits on the release of PFAS into air or water, just levels set by the EPA that can be deemed unsafe to consume[20]. Since these companies were not legally obligated to state their findings, they didn’t because they would be causing more problems for themselves. 

            More recent research has been done on the effects of PFAS in rivers across Georgia, but not nearly as much as there should be. In one study, water samples were collected from four different sites within the Conasauga River, one above, one at, and two below the LAS (Land Application System) where effluent water from wastewater treatment plants are sprayed. They found that PFCs where concentrated in the highest levels in the Conasauga River. Of the subcategories of PFCs, PFOAs were detected as the highest concentration followed by PFNA, PFOS, PFOSA, PFDA and PFUA, all of which are different types of fluorocarbons. These high levels were found from the samples taken downstream of the LAS. They also found similar results in streams and ponds surrounding the Dalton area. These findings indicate that the LAS is most likely the point source for these pollutants. It was also stated that generally, the effluent water from a wastewater treatment plant can have increased amounts of these chemicals due to high quantities of water being mixed together. According to these findings, the Conasauga River’s concentration of PFCs was higher than those of the Tennessee River. Because these chemicals bioaccumulate, they were seen in higher levels of the food chain due to birds eating contaminated fish[21]. These pollutants cause concern for the Conasauga River, because it can lower fish diversity and lead to a shift in more benthic dwelling fish in the river.

In addition to this information, a study done in 2005 showed that in general, animals at higher trophic levels have higher concentrations of PFOS, which indicates that biomagnification is taking place and that these chemicals are making their way up the food chain. Because PFOS do not adhere to the fatty organs like many other chemicals do, the BFC levels associated with PFAS tend to be lower than those of bioconcentration through lipophilic chemicals. Because of this, levels used for determining whether they are bioconcentrating have to be shifted slightly. If only the Bioconcentration factor was looked at the numbers would seem low because PFOS stay in the bloodstream, liver, and kidneys. It was found that PFOS had acute toxicity to fish, meaning that a high concentration of exposure over a short period of time could cause harm. During this study PFOS were found to be to toxic to mammals, fish and algae[22]. According to the EPA, exposure to both PFOA and PFOS have cause tumors in animals.

            Another study showed the EC50 (effective concentration) of acute exposure of algae to PFOS to be 120 milligrams per liter after 72 hours. This means that after just four days of exposure, the algae had been affected. Similarly, invertebrates have an EC50 of 58 milligrams per liter after 48 hours of exposure, and fish had an EC50 of 7.8 after 96 hours of exposure. This tells us that PFAS are “moderately acutely toxic to aquatic organisms.”  This study also showed that, because of their long half-lives, and persistence, PFOS and PFOAs are excreted very slowly from the body though urine and feces. The longer the perfluoroalkyl chain is, meaning it has more molecules, the longer it takes to be excreted from the body. This is why in recent years companies are beginning to use PFAS with shorter chains. It can be seen from this study that the “presence of PFOS at levels above the limit of detection” have been seen in “almost all organisms sampled in a global survey.” This is also true for both nonexposed and exposed humans, meaning whether or not someone is working with these chemicals, they have levels that can be detected in the body[23].

            Because such little research has been done on the effects of PFCs in aquatic ecosystems it is hard to get a full read on what exactly is going on when the environment is exposed to these chemicals. It is known that these chemicals are carcinogenic, but other than that there is not much evidence of what happens in nature except for bioaccumulation. A majority of the studies done have been to see how PFCs affect humans rather than animals. For example, PFOAs have been defined as having evidence that exposure can “lead to adverse human health effects”[24]. Some of these adverse health effects include low infant birth weights, effects on the immune system, cancer, and thyroid hormone disruption. When studying the exposure of PFOAs, biomarkers are uses to distinguish whether or not the chemical can be found in the body or not. PFOAs can be detected in the serum of the blood and has been found at high levels in people who work with PFOAs, or even residents that live near a production site. Since the half-life of these chemicals is so long, the detection of PFOAs in serum does not directly associate that person with recent exposure to the chemical. It has also been found that levels of perfluoroalkyl can be seen in hair as well as serum and tissue samples from the liver, heart, lung, and kidney[25]. All of these conclusions show that human and animal bodies are being affected by PFAS.

How Polyfluoroalkyl Substances are now Regulated:

            In recent years, there has been a push for more regulation on PFAS since they are harmful to humans and ecosystems. Some of these changes in regulation include a bill that was approved by the House of Representatives in January of 2020 that would set a deadline for the EPA to implement a national drinking water standard that included PFAS. Looking back, in February of 2019, the EPA stated that they would propose the drinking water standard. In December, the EPA sent proposed regulations of PFOAs and PFOSs to the Office of Management and Budget for review, but it was unknown how long approval would take. Although these regulations could help slow harm caused by PFAS, President Donald Trump has threatened to veto the bill stating that it would “set problematic and unreasonable rulemaking timeline”[26]. As of now, PFOAs and PFOS are no longer manufactured in the United States, but they are still allowed to be imported from other countries. A similar chemical called GenX is currently being used in replacement for PFAS, although it too has pollution issues[27]. In this bill it also established that the EPA would have to consider designating PFAS in the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) which is also known as Superfund. More recently in 2020, the EPA released a statement paper on how they were planning to change and update regulations of PFAS. In this statement they said they were working on developing more reliable ways of testing for PFAS which would be known as Method 533. They want to be able to more closely monitor PFAS in waterway in and around cities. It was also mentioned that there may be more regulations on imports, and the EPA would have to review any import coming into the United States that was manufactured with PFAS[28]. Increased research on PFAS would also be made possible with more funding, which would allow the EPA to reduce the risks caused by these chemicals. Articles have been written by Emory’s Science Advocacy Network trying to persuade governments to make changes such as lowering the maximum contaminant level to twenty-seven parts per trillion in the state of Georgia. Other suggestions such as combining the maximum contaminate level of PFOA and PFOS in waterways to be seventy parts per trillion, in order to lower contamination rates[29]. The history and health of the Conasauga River should really be taken into consideration for more protection, seeing as it is a very diverse and used waterway.

            Clearly, Polyfluoroalkyl substances and all of the two main subgroups of the chemical have played a major role in the history of Dalton, and the Conasauga River Valley. Because there is a deep history of carpet production in Dalton, these chemicals have most likely been used for many years, at least sixty. With studies coming out from as early as the 1950s, it is obvious that these large companies have known about the dangers and health risks of Polyfluoroalkyl substances since they began using them. Because of these studies and the fact that it is known that these substances cause harm to humans and the environment, many lawsuits have been brought up in search of compensation for their troubles. These different lawsuits and studies have also led to proposed changes to the EPA standards of drinking water to help protect the American People from these chemicals. Because it is known that they can bioaccumulate and stay in the environment for so long changes have been made to slowly remove them from production and even being imported. All of these changes have played a huge role in adding to the history of the Conasauga River, through its protection, and through the protection of the people who dwell near it.

[1] “Technical Fact Sheet- PFOS and PFOA.” United States Environmental Protection Agency, November 2017. 1

[2] “Technical Fact Sheet- PFOS and PFOA.” 2.

[3]C Lassen et al, “Survey of PFOS, PFOA and Other Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances. Part of the LOUS -Review.” Danish Environmental Protection Agency, January 2013, 82–83.

[4] “Technical Fact Sheet- PFOS and PFOA.” 2.

[5] “Technical Fact Sheet- PFOS and PFOA.” 3.

[6] “Technical Fact Sheet- PFOS and PFOA.” 3.

[7] “Technical Fact Sheet- PFOS and PFOA.” 3.

[8] “Basic Information on PFAS.” EPA.gov. Environmental Protection Agency,  https://www.epa.gov/pfas/basic-information-pfas.

[9] “History of Dalton Georgia.” Dalton, Georgia - The Carpet Capital of the World. Accessed April 17, 2020. https://www.cityofdalton-ga.gov/?SEC=C4E6D9F4-E5BE-423B-9E24-27AA40F54421.

[10] “Perfluorochemical (PFC) Contamination in Dalton, GA Statement and Background.” United State Environmental Protection Agency, October 8, 2009. 1.

[11] “Perfluorochemical (PFC) Contamination in Dalton, GA Statement and Background.” U.S. EPA, October 8, 2009. 2.

[12] “Perfluorochemical (PFC) Contamination in Dalton, GA Statement and Background.” U.S. EPA, October 8, 2009. 2.

[13] “Perflourochemical Contamination - Wastewater Treatment Plant | Water Protection Region 4.” EPA. Environmental Protection Agency, December 14, 2010. https://archive.epa.gov/pesticides/region4/water/documents/web/html/pfcdaltonindex.html.

[14] The Water Works and Sewer Board of the City of Gadsden (Circuit Court of Etowah County September 22, 2016).

[15] John Guarisco, “Health Department Responds to Gadsden Water Works and Sewer Board’s Recent Perfluorinated Compounds (PFCs) Levels.” Gadsden, September 16, 2016.

[16] Aaron Fisk, “Dalton Utilities PFOA/PFOS Position Statement.” Georgia Public Broadcasting, GPB.org.

[17] Olivia Morley, “Rome Suing over Thirty Companies in Water Pollution Lawsuit.” Marietta Daily Journal, MDJOnline.com, November 22, 2019.

[18] Patrick Filbin, “Summerville Water Crisis Could Last a Year, Cost $1.2 Million.” Chattanooga Times Free Press, timesfreepress.com, February 8, 2020.

[19] Environmental Working Group. “For Decades, Polluters Knew PFAS Chemicals Were Dangerous But Hid Risks From Public.” EWG. Accessed April 17, 2020. https://www.ewg.org/pfastimeline/.

[20] Environmental Working Group. “For Decades, Polluters Knew PFAS Chemicals Were Dangerous But Hid Risks From Public.” EWG.

[21] Brad J. Konwick,  et al.“Perfluorinated Chemicals in Georgia (USA) Surface Waters.” Athens, GA: Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia.

[22] “Report of the Persistent Organic Pollutants Review Committee on the Work of Its Second Meeting.” United Nations Environment Programme, November 21, 2006.

[23] Floris M. Hekster et al.“Environmental and Toxicity Effects of Perfluoroalkylated Substances.” Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 2003, 99–121. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-21731-2_4.

[24]“Basic Information on PFAS.” EPA.gov. Environmental Protection Agency , n.d. https://www.epa.gov/pfas/basic-information-pfas.

[25] “Chapter 3. Toxicokinetics, Susceptible Populations, Biomarkers, Chemical Interactions.” Essay. In Perfluoroalkyls, 520, n.d.

[26] Isaacs-Thomas, Isabella. “The House Just Voted to Regulate PFAS. Here's What You Need to Know.” PBS. Public Broadcasting Service, January 10, 2020. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/health/the-house-just-voted-to-regulate-pfas-heres-what-you-need-to-know.

[27] “Basic Information on PFAS.” EPA.gov. Environmental Protection Agency,  https://www.epa.gov/pfas/basic-information-pfas.

[28] Andrew Wheeler, “EPA PFAS Action Plan: Program Update.” United State Environmental Protection Agency, February 2020.

[29] Julia de Amorim, et al. “Hazardous PFAS Chemicals in Georgia’s Drinking Water.” Journal of Science Policy & Governance 14, no. 2 (June 2019).

For more information on PFAs, see the informative website maintained by the consumer advocacy group Consumer Notice.

PFAS and Water Contamination: https://www.consumernotice.org/environmental/water-contamination/pfas/

Health Effects of PFAS Exposure: https://www.consumernotice.org/environmental/water-contamination/pfas/health-effects/